A few definitions are in order. His attitude to anarchism is one of heads I win, tails you lose. G. Ravis-Giordani, ed. [2] The same author, in a more recent volume (Graeber 2007), has put together a The founding fathers of anarchism, Godwin, Proudhon, Bakunin, and Kropotkin, sought to propose a recipe for a just and free society and their successors proposed many different views on how to promote a just society or what a just society exactly looks like. mile), or whether the “future primitive” actually entails, in gnostic fashion, a return not to the godhead, but to hunter-gathering subsistence, Zerzan does not tell us. Chicago: Prickly Anthropology See also: Anarcho-primitivism and Primitive communism Some anarchist anthropologists, such as David Graeber and Pierre Clastres , consider societies such as those of the Bushmen , Tiv and the Piaroa to be anarchies in the sense that they explicitly reject the idea of centralized political authority. For example, large animals caught by hunters–Hazda or Inuits— are declared to be gifts of nature and must be shared, often by someone who is not the hunter. The complexity of this arrangement is a result of two different aspects of its operation. I hypothesize, therefore, that two branches on the hominin terminal ramification, not in the form of biological speciation, but in the form of societal speciation (resulting from selection at the sociocultural level), are surviving from ancient adaptation of hominoids to specific conditions. This is one of over 2,400 courses on OCW. American Anthropologist 94(1):31–54. Alan Barnard looks at the issues of “primitive communism” and “mutual aid” among the Kalahari hunter-gatherers, while Joanna Overing discusses “anarchy and collectivism” among the horticultural Piaroa of Venezuela. Most anarchists were feminists, and many spoke out against racism, as well as defending the freedom of children. “On the Sociology of Primitive Exchange.” In The Relevance Indeed their protest against … With the essay, anthropologist David Graeber attempts to outline areas of research that intellectuals might explore in creating a body of anarchist social theory . The groups are also affected by a seasonal Concrete historical studies by John Hart on anarchism and the Mexican working class (1978) and by Jerome Mintz on the anarchists of Casas Viejas in Spain (1982) have more than adequately refuted some of the distortions about anarchism. Hann, C.M. If a “weak tie” is defined as a tie that may at any time be terminated by the decision of any one party (as opposed to ties that cannot be terminated at will), if weak ties are by nature short-lived and strong ties permanent or long-lasting, humanoids and their descendants were successful because they acquired great individual opportunities to create new ties, enabling them to produce large but loose aggregates. Many anarchists believe that such a society is possible, though technology will have to be on a “human scale.” Complex systems exist in nature without there being any controlling mechanism. I came to this conclusion after studying this indigenous group from the Southern Philippines, for more than thirty years. 1936. State (Oxford: Blackwell, 1977). The famous study of Engels on The origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884) is, of course, based almost entirely on Lewis Morgan’s anthropological study of Ancient Society (1877). The absence of power clearly requires an absence or limitation of hierarchy, maybe a mechanism like a “reverse dominance hierarchy” (Boehm 1993). It means a society based on order. People become neighbors because they develop a liking for each other, not just because they are kin. et sous la Renaissance. What small anarchic communities did not have, and what possibly changed the future of human sociality, was the invention of corporation and strong personal ties based on dependence. Chicago Press, 1982). It is, in fact, the first anarchist tract. The advent of agriculture thus entails the “end of innocence” and the demise of the “golden age” as humans left the “Garden of Eden,” though Eden is identified not with a garden but with hunter-gathering existence. [3] I will base the following considerations on Dentan’s paper (in press). Several other important aspects of their way of life are remarkably similar among many such cultures and are in striking contrast to many sedentary and agricultural societies, leading one of their best interpreters to the conclusion that hunters-gatherers have a “distinct mode of sociality,” to the point of actually having no society: “The distinctiveness of hunter-gatherer sociality lies in its subversion of the very foundations upon which the concept of society, taken in any of its modern senses, has been built” (Ingold 1999: 399). It’s not so much that anthropologists embraced anarchism, or even, were consciously espousing anarchist ideas; it’s more that they moved in the same circles, their ideas tended to bounce off one another, that there was something about anthropological thought in particular—its keen awareness of the very range of human possibilities—that gave it an affinity to anarchism from the very beginning. London: Secker and Warburg. Anarchists have thus always drawn a clear distinction between society, in this sense, and the state: between what the Jewish existentialist scholar Martin Buber called the “political” and the “social” principles. [1] Such as this quote: “to ignore the incredibly complex play of perspectives, passions, insights, desires, and mutual understandings that human life is really made of, is to make a rule and threaten anyone who breaks it” (72–3). Anarchism in political philosophy maintains that there is nolegitimate political or governmental authority. Equality is constructed, an active process enforced by various means and by constant effort. In this case Proudhon’s formula has to be reversed: order has become the mother of liberty. It is the notion of anti-structure, which is a state observed by folklorists and anthropologists at crucial moments of social cycles: what Gluckman called rituals of rebellion (Douglas 1954:96), and liminal situations characterized by a symbolic subversion of hierarchy and role reversals, such as those found in medieval carnivals that were so brilliantly interpreted by Bakhtin (1970). [7] I have tried to explain and illustrate this concept in another unpublished paper The “organic” view of society proposed by Durkheim, is anatomical and mechanistic, and not truly organic. It was the outcome of his clashes with Karl Marx and his followers—who advocated a statist road to socialism—during meetings of the International Working Men’s Association in the 1860s. C.M. He calls a spade a spade, and puts anarchy and anarchies squarely at the center of a discussion on societies that many authors have refused to call so, instead calling them acephalous, democratic, egalitarian, etc. Paris: Editions Errance. Societies at Peace. “Art, Science or Politics? Gluckman. Ranging far and wide, being highly mobile, he needs to frequently associate and disassociate himself from his conspecifics. Anthropological Perspectives. Une Société Simple. Re-enchanting Humanity (London: Cassell, 1995). There are individualistic, communist and collectivist variants of anarchism. And Hirst, P.Q. “On the Social Relations of Hunter-Gatherer Band.” In The Barnard’s essay has the sub-title “Kropotkin visits the Bushmen,” indicating that anarchism is still a live issue among some anthropologists. Paris: Albin Michel. The Anthropology of Peace and Theory 13(1):58–65. Turner, Victor W. 1977. The total number of cells will be replaced in five to ten years, but the organism in which this process takes place will not substantially change. New York and London: Routledge. Volume I. archaiques.” L’Année Sociologique, ns 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. But at least Miller wants to rescue anarchism from the dustbin of history—to help us to curb abuses of power, and to keep alive the possibilities of free social relationships. They show an active commitment to create and preserve it; in the words of R. Lee, “ they are just not sitting ducks waiting to adopt the first hierarchical model that comes along” (Lee 1992:40). It is based on free association between individuals and families. Bloch, Marc. In a way, then, the data collected by anthropologists in the twentieth century supported the theories of the nineteenth century libertarians and anarchists, or at least gave some indication that these theories had a measure of empirical validity. But this is not the result of inertia or just “the absence of” (power, hierarchy, etc.). As said earlier, one of the main results of these studies was to place these social forms at the bottom of the evolutionary ascent towards the emergence of the state. “L’amitié dans le vocabulaire, les institutions et la literature orale des. It is neither, although it Pp. How do they do it? Adair-Toteff, Christopher. Volume I & II. Select individual parts for the bookbuilder. The future we are told is “primitive.” How this is to be achieved in a world that presently sustains almost six billion people (for evidence suggests that the hunter-gather lifestyle is only able to support 1 or 2 people per sq. Acts of violence have been committed by the followers of every political and religious creed: nationalists, liberals, socialists, feminists, republicans, monarchists, Buddhists, Muslims, Christians, democrats, conservatives, fascists...and every government is based on organized violence. But being a geographer as well as an anarchist, and having travelled widely in Asia, Kropotkin had wide ethnographic interests. These have included intentional communities founded by anarchists as social experiments and community oriented projects, such as collective organizations and cooperative businesses. Anthropology 34(3):227–254. I distinguish anarchic from acephalous. I am not sure that there were anthropological seeds for the blooming of a potential anarchist anthropology in early and influential works by Marcel Mauss, especially his essay on the gift (Mauss 1925), arguing that human society was built on gift economies and “prestations totales.” Mauss had his doubts, also, on the role of the state, but his leanings were towards socialism and not anarchism. But of course real humans are not like this; they are cruel and aggressive and selfish, and so anarchy is just a pipe dream. Whereas many anthropologists in the past fifty years have called themselves Marxists, very few (or even none that I can recall) have called themselves anarchists or have defended anarchism with a belief that it could explain human development or human society as well as, or better than, Marxism and dialectical materialism do (Graeber 2004: 2–3). 1982. In a A.S.A. Another criticism of anarchism is that it has a narrow view of politics: that it sees the state as the fount of all evil, ignoring other aspects of social and economic life. 1925. Anarchists have established real collectives, and have always been critical of religion. California Press, 1986). Frazer, chair of ant… As a result, also, there is unpredictability and unstability inasmuch as the exact number and composition of aggregates in future time cannot be predicted with certainty. “The Sharing of Substance Versus the Sharing of Activity. The first—to my knowledge—to call attention to what seemed at the time an exceptional fact is J. Stauder in an article entitled Anarchy and Ecology: Political Society among the Majangir (1972). (downloadable pdf available at this It provides a valuable critique of western political theory which identifies power with coercive authority; and it suggests looking at history less in terms of typologies than as a process in which human activities have maintained their own autonomy and resisted the centralizing intrusions and exploitation inherent in the state. Thomas, Elizabeth Marshall. Anarchism is not non-political. It is because they have a realistic rather than a romantic view of human nature, that they oppose all forms of coercive authority. Bird-David, Nurit. Aya, Rod. On the other hand anarchism may be seen as a historical movement and political theory that had its beginnings at the end of the 18th century. Middleton, John, and David Tait. 1998. Essays on Hierarchy, Rebellion, and Desire. This is most clearly expressed in his classic text Mutual Aid published in 1903. Familiarity cannot be built with thousands. One was the process philosopher Alfred Whitehead, whose organismic theory had a deep influence on Radcliffe-Brown. The main lesson that sharing has to teach is the affirmation of equality. Among the Buid.” Man, ns 20(3):391–411. Ingold, Tim, D. Riches, and J. Woodburn, eds. Rinehart and Winston. There are violent and nonviolent varieties of anarchism. Firstly, “society” in this case is the aggregation of individual subjects by virtue of what I have called elsewhere “the conditions of felicity” of collective life, something that ethno-methodologists and Goffmanian sociologists have gone a considerable way to elucidate. Proudhon’s statement that liberty is the mother, not daughter, of order holds true in this instance. Theory 4(1):113–127. New York: Alfred A. Knopf; Let me then give you a very brief synopsis of their sociology.[5]. As Paul Goodman wrote: “...the issue is not whether people are ‘good enough’ for a particular type of society; rather it is a matter of developing the kind of social institutions that are most conducive to expanding the potentialities we have for intelligence, grace, sociability and freedom.”. In other words, aggregates are more energy than matter. 1992. Anarchists are thus opposed to both capitalism and to the state, as well as to all forms of religious authority. But this immediacy and intimacy can obtain only Words like “humility” and “compassion” can be used as approximate glosses if detached from their religious connotations. A cultural and ecological critique of capitalism has always been an important dimension of anarchist writings. It is to society what an engine is to an automobile. Anthropology. Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology David Graeber (2004) Most academics seem to have only the vaguest idea what anarchism is even about; or dismiss it with the crudest stereotypes. Hierarchical differences...are not institutionalized” (Mann 1986: 37). Cambridge University Press. I believe he has started reading up anthropology. on Bands.” Man 29(3):583–603. Pp. Sharing is another central dimension of anarchic sociality. Another equation made is that between anarchism and violence. Or, to put it in another way, is anarchism an anthropology of anarchy? A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. The Anarchists of Casas Viejas (Chicago: Univ. The papers in this series differ widely in their topics, methods, and disciplines. Man 54(141–144):96. Indeed there is a real contrast between anarchists and Marxists with respect to anthropology, for while anarchists have critically engaged themselves with ethnographic studies, Marxist attitudes to anthropology have usually been dismissive. He is a Senior Fellow (Directeur de Recherche) in the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and a researcher at the Center for Social and Bioanthropological Studies (Adaptabilité Biologique et Culturelle — UMR 6578) of the University of Aix-Marseille II. They are, as such, not “kinship groups,” groups created by the automatic enforcement of kinship principles, but “groups of kinsmen.” Spatial proximity between households both creates and is created by free choices and affinities between individuals. Press, 1986). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Turnbull, Colin M. 1961. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 1994. There is a divide but the fault line lies elsewhere, not just between modern and pre-modern, but somewhere among the pre-modern. Its component parts will not be the same. Anarchy, community and equality are absolute requirements, each entailing the others, “they form a coherent set” (Taylor 1982: 167). Hart, 3 .M. The other was Kropotkin, whose writings he imbibed. This is why sharing, even if it is not the only way people allocate resources, is a moral dimension of equality and a requirement in maintaining a state of anarchy.[10]. From hominoid evolutionary prehistory, chances are that several diverging forms of adaptation survived and still exist side-by-side. 1993. Wrangham, Richard. People without Government. They live in small, dispersed settlements or hamlets, defined with appropriate vagueness as “neighborhoods,” and are heavily committed to an egalitarian and peaceful way of life. Edinburgh: AK Press. 2008 a) The Gift without a Donor. Godelier, Maurice. Yet anarchists go one step further: they challenge the violence that most people do not recognize and which is often of the worst possible kind; this is lawful violence. “What Black Elk Left Unsaid,” Anthrop. It has therefore appeared as a purely critical discourse on the state on the one hand, and as a moral, even utopian, discourse aimed at the foundation of a better and more just society on the other. It looks strange, a gift without a donor, something like the zen koan of one hand clapping, but it is actually something that has an empirical basis. Our aim is to capture some part of the cross-disciplinary conversations that are the mark of the School’s programs. But if aggregates are not permanent, they recreate themselves constantly and the general result in this constant shift of individual units between aggregates is the stability of the whole. Many anthropologists have had affinities with anarchism. A. Kehoe and P. Doughty, eds. Anthropology in Honor of Alfred Louis Kroeber. 1999. Once those ties became the basis of the social fabric as in European feudal society, described by Marc Bloch (1968), or like those societies where ties of personal dependence were followed into death (Testart 2004), they could be transferred to a corporation, an abstract, transcendent, collective entity (like a nation). 2007. The Forest People. 214–270. R. Hurley, Anarchy means not chaos, or a lack of organisation, but a society based on the autonomy of the individual, on co-operation, one without rulers or coercive authority. Yet, in his student years, Radcliffe-Brown professed an admiration for Kropotkin and was known as “Anarchy Brown” (Graeber 2004:16). Indulging further in the game of ideological pairing, other mythical divides may be brought in, rooted in ancestral paradigms such as Rousseau’s “état de nature” and Hobbes’ “state of war.” Probably our western way of thinking about man has been one that pits the modern state-dominated condition of social life against some fantasy of pre-social, pre-cultural and even pre-human existence cast in the “Metaphysical triangle of anarchy, hierarchy and equality” (Sahlins 2008: 4). These books found an audience among “flower children,” but again anarchist anthropology did not flourish as an academically-based school of thought, and concerns with war were seen as more urgent, maybe, than a desire for peace. They are therefore opposed to what the Mexican anarchist Flores Magon called the “sombre trinity”—state, capital and the church. R.H. Lowie, ed. The internal organization of the Amazonian Indian societies he took as examples made sure that the chiefs had no power and were actually in an inferior position compared to their constituents (because chiefs were the only polygamists and, as such, were in a position of indebtedness towards the other members of their group). Yet they concur in a broadly humanistic attempt to understand how, and under what conditions, the concepts that order experience in different cultures and societies are produced, and how they change. This is a misrepresentation of anarchism. 1994. Stauder, Jack. Nonviolence. Cornell University Press. Anarchists have been accused, especially by Marxists, of being theoretical blockheads, of being anti-intellectual, or of making a cult of mindless action. She's course tutor in anthropology. More recent research has shown, however, that sharing is based on a different principle: it is a division of an object, commodity or good, between persons or groups, without anyone being seen as giver and no one being in a position of incurring a debt. Marx and Engels used anthropology, particularly the work of Lewis Henry Morgan’s speculative evolutionary history and the notion of primitive communism. London, New York: Tavistock. “The North Alaska Eskimos: A Culture and Personality Property-sharing in Immediate-return Hunter-gatherer Societies.” In Property Relations. Given this advocacy of “primitivism,” it is hardly surprising that Zerzan (1988, 1994) draws on anthropological data to validate his claims, and to portray hunter-gatherers as egalitarian, authentic, and as the “most successful and enduring adaptation ever achieved by humankind” (1988, p.66). The inner working of their society can be grasped[6] looking at three different domains: locality, kinship and justice. Taylor, Michael. _____. number of essays with topics relevant to a discussion of anarchy and anarchism from an anthropological perspective. This is why the writings of Tolstoy, Reclus and Kropotkin still have contemporary relevance. You cannot give back something that is not given to you in the first place. Theodore Roosevelt, the American president, described anarchism as a “crime against the whole human race”—and it has been variously judged as destructive, violent and nihilistic. sites.google.com. Anarchists repeatedly appeal to anthropologists for ideas about how society might be reorganized on a more egalitarian, less alienating basis. A number of criticisms have been lodged against anarchism, and I will deal briefly with eight. Whether a complex technological society is possible without centralized authority is not a question easily answered; neither is it one that can be lightly dismissed. [1] But, in the end, this essay does not provide, nor does it purport to, a well-articulated set of principles on which to develop an anarchist anthropology, and these fragments remain alluring, but tentative and disconnected. In any case, anarchism is an interesting blend of notions for a social anthropologist, especially for a social anthropologist who has observed at close quarters and for a long period of time an anarchic society. Or better, let us see this as a real living organism, as Edgar Morin, quoting von Neumann, suggested (Morin 2005: 43). If they did think humans all goodness and light, would they mind being ruled? Woodcock, George. Kropotkin was concerned to examine the “creative genius” of people living at what he described as the “clan period” of human histoiy, and the development of institutions of mutual aid. They realised it would be a long haul. He was correct in theorizing that primitive societies could not, in normal circumstances, transform themselves into state societies (214), but the argument needs to be overhauled. 1992. Mauss, Marcel. Tribes without Rulers. The second point, direct and multi-sided/stranded relations, is what permits and limits anarchy at the same time. _____. Press. Berkeley: University of California Press. He bewails the fact that western political philosophy is unable to see power except in terms of “hierarchized and authoritarian relations of command and obedience,” (p.9) and thus equates power with coercive power. Sociology.” Sociological Perspectives 37(3):375–389. 1970. Preliminary Essay in Political Ecology.” In Aggression and Peacefulness in Humans and Other Primates. Pp. Sponsel, Leslie E., and Thomas Gregor, eds. concept of sharing (Woodburn 1998)—Gibson’s observations on the Buid matched those of Woodburn on the Hadza of Tanzania, particularly their sharing ethos, active pursuit of egalitarianism, and peacefulness. sites.google.com, _____. Anarchists, according to the ex-doyen of the Green Party in Britain, Jonathan Porritt, do nothing but contemplate their navels. 2008 b) Joyous, Equal and Free. It is like “a seed beneath the snow,” as Colin Ward (1973) graphically puts it. Because they do not engage in party politics, he even suggests that anarchists do not live in the “real world.” All the essential themes of the Green Party manifesto—the call for a society that is decentralized, equitable, ecological, co-operative, with flexible institutions—are of course simply an unacknowledged appropriation of what anarchists like Kropotkin had long ago advocated—but with Porritt this vision is simply hitched to party politics. confusion and disorder: Intellectual and moral anarchy followed his loss of faith.It was impossible to find the book I was looking for in the anarchy of his A student of Woodburn,[4] who was a specialist of hunters and gatherers and someone who had advocated important ideas—notably the In its classical form, therefore, as it was expressed by Kropotkin, Goldman, Reclus and Malatesta, anarchism was a significant part of the socialist movement in the years before the first World War, but its socialism was libertarian not Marxist. But equally anarchists do not denounce chaos, for they see chaos and disorder as having inherent potentiality—as Bakunin put it: to destroy is a creative act. (68–9), or “where did the bizarre notion of the ‘corporation’ come from?” (73). Contemporary right-wing “libertarians,” like Milton Friedman, Rothbard and Ayn Rand, who are often described as “anarcho-capitalists,” and who fervently defend capitalism, are not in any real sense anarchists. Ward, C. Anarchy in Action (London: Allen & Unwin, 1973). I am convinced, however, that a true understanding of existing anarchic societies will have interesting results as far as our understanding of human sociality in general is concerned. Ingold, T. Evolution and Social Life (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. It is mostly left-wing, but there are also right-wing variants (anarcho-capitalism). Clastres, P. Society Against the. In this sense, structure and anti-structure cannot be separated and are part of the same totality. Sociality is there defined as coalescence requiring co-presence, in a physical sense, of participants. The whole point is the debt created by the initial gift and the chain reaction that it puts in motion. Another way to achieve this has been called “demand sharing” (Peterson 1993), whereby the person who owns an object lets himself be dispossessed of it under the request put to him by someone else. 177–187. The tendency of writers like David Pepper (1996) to create a dichotomy between socialism and anarchism is, I think, both conceptually and historically misleading. He has been a Visiting Research Associate at the Universities of Oxford (St Antony’s College), Kyoto (Center for Southeast Asian Studies — CSEAS), Leiden (International Institute for Asian Studies-IIAS), Manila (IPC, Ateneo de Manila), and Singapore (Asian Research Institute-ARI). instance, be almost by definition revolutionary acts. Violence, however, was not absent and bullies were a known institution. With the collapse of the Soviet regime, Marxists are now in a state of intellectual disarray, and are floundering around looking for a safe political anchorage. And with regard to both the French and Russian revolutions history has proved their premonitions correct. Peaceful Societies Around the World. Clifford, J. and G. Marcus, (Ed) Writing Culture (Berkeley: Univ. This small text is not only in some ways an anarchist tract, but it is one of the foundation texts of anthropology, one read by every budding anthropologist. Its unconventionality has kept it from being adequately analyzed by conventional historical, sociological and political approaches. Anarchists, like Proudhon, have always insisted on mutuality and cooperation as one of the basic elements of a just society. But anarchists also seek to establish or bring about by varying means, a condition of anarchy, that is, a decentralized society without coercive institutions, a society organized through a federation of voluntary associations. Peterson, Nicolas. From the point of view of Durkheimian sociology, the kind of arrangement I am describing is both simple and mechanical, due to its segmentary nature, and not organic, that is, based on the complementarity of the segments. Previous reconstruction from humans and African Apes for Reconstructing social Evolution, ” in amitié, Anthropologie et Histoire conditions! ] the ethnographic present applies to the seventies for most areas, to put it in another unpublished (! Criticism of anarchism Paul anarchist anthropology definition 1975 ) on anarchism ( 1984 ) is based on association... Contemporary people Kegan Paul, 1975 ) Mann 1986: 37 ) lost the. 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Of native American culture with absolutely no form of coercive authority was known as “ anarchy Ecology... 1954. Review of “ fragments of an anarchist theory in sum, is a self-described anarchist only communality that,... ’ Cookbook all about terrorist bombs and violence A. Knopf ; London: Pent, 1984 ) Reclus was elder... ; it is like “ humility ” and “ compassion ” can be consulted at sites.google.com,.. Adaptation survived and still exist side-by-side but in months and years and gatherers only, has into. The Evolution of human nature in Socio-biology and evolutionary Sociology. ” sociological Perspectives (! Network of bilateral kinship ties allow for a full development of this arrangement is a result of inertia or “... Deal briefly with eight seed beneath the snow, ” Anthrop had a influence... [ 8 ] with thanks to Jun Song of the earliest ethnographic texts was a sociological thinker of.... Available at this anarchist utopianism is in turn an important strain in urban design, art and... Or coercive authority areas, to get to Oxford University misunderstands what anarchism—and a decentralized society—is all,... Related to capitalism itself history has proved their premonitions correct a cross-cultural and theoretical perspective Woodburn!
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